Music played a vital role in the anti-apartheid struggle, both within SA and internationally.
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During apartheid, from 1948 to 1994, music emerged as a beacon of hope and a weapon of resistance and protest within South Africa while local artists in exile during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s also interacted and collaborated with international artists and became crucial in spreading the anti-apartheid message beyond the South African borders.
Dorothy Masuka.
Image: File
The early resistance
Resistance to apartheid took many forms, from non-violent protests to armed struggle. Music emerged as a unifying force that showed resilience, and socio-political resistance and finally led to transformation.
Songs such as Enoch Sontonga's "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" (God Bless Africa), the anthem of the African National Congress (ANC), symbolised hope and defiance.
Early protest songs criticised land dispossession and laid the foundation for a musical tradition of resistance. Today, songs still play a significant role in South African political cultures and are sung at the start and end of political meetings, as well as during demonstrations and protests.
The 1950s: music as a weapon of protest
In the 1950s, as apartheid laws tightened, musicians began to use their art to explicitly oppose the regime.
The protest music of the 1950s, soon after apartheid had begun, explicitly addressed peoples' grievances over pass laws and forced relocation and became an integral part of integrating the anti-apartheid message into everyday society.
Vuyisile Mini, an ANC activist and trade unionist, composed "Ndodemnyama we Verwoerd" (Watch out, Verwoerd), a powerful Xhosa song warning the apartheid architect Hendrik Verwoerd of the people’s resistance.
Mini was among the pioneers of using music to protest apartheid.
Mini’s song became an enduring anthem, which he is said to have sung as he was taken to the gallows to face execution in 1964 after being arrested in 1963 for "political crimes", and sentenced to death.
Women also played a crucial role in the musical resistance.
Dorothy Masuka’s "uDr. Malan Unomthetho Onzima" (Dr. Malan’s government is harsh) criticised the regime’s oppressive policies, while songs such as "Meadowlands" by Strike Vilakezi mourned the forced relocation of communities from Sophiatown, a vibrant hub of African jazz and culture.
The song, and others on Sophiatown, illustrated the heartache residents felt, being forcefully removed from their homes,
Vuyisile Mini was executed on November 6, 1964.
Image: File
During the apartheid era, music emerged not just as a form of entertainment but as a powerful weapon of protest and a beacon of hope.
Image: Pexels
The 1960s: exile and militancy
The Sharpeville Massacre of March 21, 1960, marked a turning point. Police opened fire on peaceful protesters, killing 69 people.
In the aftermath, the ANC and other anti-apartheid organisations were banned, and many activists, including musicians, went into exile. Today it is celebrated as Human Rights Day.
Anti-apartheid music became more downbeat and the lyrical content sombre while increasing harassment and censorship by the government forced artists to use subtle and ‘hidden meanings’ in their lyrics.
Figures such as Miriam Makeba and Hugh Masekela used their music to raise international awareness of apartheid’s horrors.
Within SA, censorship and repression intensified. The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) banned "subversive" music and artists like Dorothy Masuka faced persecution.
Yet, music continued to thrive in the townships, with songs such as "In Soweto" celebrating community resilience and jazz anthems like Winston's "Mankunku" Ngozi’s "Yakhal' Inkhomo" (the bellowing of the bull) expressing the era’s political energy.
Songs such as "Thina Sizwe" and "Senzeni na" were popularised by fighters and black anti-apartheid activists, writes Keanan Christine Jaftha in her thesis on "Mapping Liberation Through Song".
The 1960s also saw the rise of armed resistance. The ANC’s militant wing, uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK), adopted songs like "Sobashiy'abazali" (We will leave our parents) to inspire fighters. The toyi-toyi chant became a powerful tool for mobilising protesters and intimidating security forces.
Abdullah Ibrahim Picture: Supplied Abdullah Ibrahim
Image: Supplied
The 1970s: cultural renaissance and Soweto
The 1970s witnessed a cultural resurgence within the anti-apartheid movement. The ANC established cultural groups like the Mayibuye Cultural Ensemble and the Amandla Cultural Ensemble, which used music, poetry and theatre to rally support for the struggle.
These groups performed internationally, spreading awareness of apartheid’s injustices.
The Soweto Uprising of 1976, sparked by the government’s decision to impose Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in schools, became a defining moment.
Police killed hundreds of protesting students, igniting nationwide unrest. Masekela’s "Soweto Blues”, performed by Makeba, captured the tragedy and became an anthem of resistance.
Songs from this period often used metaphors and hidden meanings to evade censorship, while jazz pianist Abdullah Ibrahim’s instrumental piece, "Mannenberg", evoked themes of freedom and cultural identity.
Roger Lucey perfoms in 1979. His first album, The Road is Much Longer, was banned by the apartheid government for 'creating a climate of protest against police and the present order of the state’.
Image: File
The 1980s: confrontation and global solidarity
The 1980s saw escalating protests and a more confrontational approach to apartheid. Songs like Roger Lucey’s "Longile Tabalaza" directly criticised the regime, while the toyi-toyi chant became a staple of mass demonstrations.
Internationally, artists like Peter Gabriel ("Biko") and the collective Artists United Against Apartheid ("Sun City") amplified the call for justice. Within SA, racially mixed bands like Juluka, led by Johnny Clegg, challenged segregation laws by performing for diverse audiences.
Masekela’s "Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)" became a global anthem demanding Mandela’s release. Brenda Fassie’s "Black President” foreshadowed Mandela’s eventual rise to power.
The end of apartheid and the role of music
Mandela’s release in 1990 marked the beginning of apartheid’s end. Celebratory songs from Yvonne Chaka Chaka and Masekela captured the nation’s joy.
In 1994, SA held its first democratic elections, and Mandela became president, fulfilling the dreams expressed in decades of protest music.
Music played a vital role in the anti-apartheid struggle, both within SA and internationally. This article only touches the surface of the many musicians and groups whose work raised awareness and protest, built unity and offered a vision of a free and democratic future.